Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms. It explores the molecular basis of inheritance, DNA structure, and the role of genes in determining traits.

The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, mapped and sequenced all human DNA, identifying genes and understanding their functions. This groundbreaking effort advanced genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.

DNA vectors are small, circular DNA molecules used in genetic engineering to carry foreign genes into host organisms. Common vectors include plasmids and viral vectors, enabling gene manipulation and expression.

Northern blotting is a molecular biology technique used to study gene expression. It involves transferring RNA molecules from a gel to a membrane, followed by detection using a labeled probe.